Recycling electric car batteries: technologies, regulations, and opportunities for sustainable mobility

The global mobility landscape is undergoing a monumental shift. The rise of electric vehicles, driven by the need to reduce CO2 emissions and meet international climate goals, is redefining the automotive industry. According to ACEA and Motus-E data, electric vehicle sales in Europe have recorded annual growth rates exceeding 20% over the past five years, and Italy is progressively aligning with this trend, despite a structural delay compared to other EU countries.

While this phenomenon is undoubtedly positive for environmental sustainability, it also raises a crucial question: how should we manage batteries once they reach the end of their life cycle?

The answer is clear: through an efficient and sustainable system for recycling electric car batteries. This is not merely an environmental obligation, but a true industrial strategy with significant impacts on:

• Availability of strategic raw materials (such as lithium, nickel, and cobalt)

• Cost reduction in the production of new batteries

• Mitigation of risks related to dependence on non-European suppliers

• Growth of the circular economy in Europe and Italy

A recent report by Motus-E, PwC Strategy&, and the Politecnico di Milano estimates that, by 2050, the volume of batteries to be recycled in Europe will exceed 3.4 million tons, while in Italy it will reach 367,000 tons. These figures highlight the urgency of investing now in adequate infrastructure to prevent end-of-life batteries from becoming an environmental or economic problem.

Moreover, the recently updated European Battery Directive sets stringent targets for the recovery of critical materials and obliges manufacturers to ensure traceability and responsible management of end-of-life batteries. In short: postponement is no longer an option.

But what does it actually mean to recycle an electric vehicle battery? What processes are involved? And what concrete environmental and economic benefits can be achieved?

How electric vehicle batteries are made

To understand the importance of recycling, it is essential first to understand the nature of the batteries powering electric vehicles. EV (Electric Vehicle) batteries predominantly use lithium-ion technology, which guarantees high energy density, long lifespan, and reduced charging times.

Key components of an EV battery:

• Cathode: Made from metal oxides such as cobalt, nickel, and manganese.

• Anode: Primarily composed of graphite.

• Electrolyte: Liquid solution that allows the flow of lithium ions.

• Separator: Membrane that prevents short circuits between anode and cathode.

• Module and battery pack: Collection of assembled cells.

Why recycle batteries?

Each battery contains valuable materials and critical resources which, if improperly disposed of, become an environmental and health hazard. However, when correctly processed, these materials can be reintroduced into the production cycle, reducing the need for new raw material extraction—positively impacting both sustainability and economic competitiveness.

Additionally, the battery production process accounts for about 40% of the total emissions related to manufacturing an electric vehicle. Recovering and reusing materials further reduces the overall carbon footprint.

Lastly, in the current geopolitical context, global demand for strategic raw materials like lithium, nickel, and cobalt is expected to grow exponentially, with most of these resources sourced from non-EU countries. Recycling therefore enhances Europe’s energy security.

The life cycle of an electric car battery

The life cycle of an electric vehicle battery does not end with its use inside the vehicle. In fact, it encompasses several phases—from production, primary and secondary use, to recycling and material reuse.

1. Production: from raw materials to finished battery

Battery production starts with extracting raw materials, primarily lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and graphite. These elements are then refined, processed, and transformed into key components: cathodes, anodes, electrolyte, and separators. Once the cells are assembled, they are organized into modules and battery packs, ready to be integrated into vehicles.

This process is not without its challenges: mining and refining have a significant environmental impact, not to mention the social issues linked to resource exploitation in certain countries. Therefore, even at this stage, the supply chain must focus on ethical sourcing and low-emission processes.

2. Use: life onboard the vehicle

During its service life in an electric car, a battery undergoes continuous charge and discharge cycles. On average, a battery can deliver between 1,000 and 1,500 full cycles, translating to about 8-10 years of use, depending on the model and driving style.

Over time, the battery's capacity decreases, eventually reaching a point where it is no longer adequate to provide sufficient range for the vehicle. However, this does not mean the battery is completely depleted.

3. Second life of batteries: real opportunities

A battery that has lost 20-30% of its capacity can still be used in less demanding applications. This is where the concept of second life comes into play—an innovative approach that repurposes batteries for stationary storage systems.

Examples of applications:

• Renewable energy storage: Batteries can be integrated into solar and wind power plants to store energy during peak production.

• Grid stabilization: Helping balance energy supply and demand.

• Backup systems for businesses and commercial centers: Providing efficient and low-cost solutions.

Of course, before being repurposed, batteries must undergo tests to verify their State of Health (SoH). This parameter, expressed as a percentage, indicates how much residual capacity a battery retains compared to its original condition.

4. End of life: the recycling phase

Once the battery’s second life concludes—typically after another 5-10 years—it must be treated as special waste. This is where actual recycling comes into play.

The electric car battery recycling process: phases and technologies

Recycling EV batteries is not a simple disposal operation. It is a technologically complex and highly regulated process that requires specialized expertise and dedicated facilities.

Phase 1: Collection and logistics of end-of-life batteries

The first step involves the collection and safe transportation of end-of-life batteries. Given their hazardous nature (they are flammable and contain harmful chemicals), their handling is subject to strict European regulations, such as the ADR Regulation for the transport of dangerous goods.

The European Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) framework obliges battery and vehicle manufacturers to guarantee efficient systems for collection, traceability, and treatment of end-of-life products. Dealerships and service centers also play a key role, acting as collection points.

Phase 2: Dismantling and separation

Once at the facilities, the batteries are first secured (fully discharged) and then dismantled. The components are separated as follows:

• Outer casing (plastic or aluminum)

• Wiring and electronic components

• Battery modules and cells

This phase, which is still largely manual, is costly and labor-intensive, but it is crucial to make the subsequent treatment more efficient.

Phase 3: Pre-treatment – creation of black mass

The dismantled modules and cells are shredded and treated to obtain the so-called black mass—a powder containing lithium, nickel, manganese, cobalt, and graphite. This mixture forms the starting point for the extraction of valuable materials.

Phase 4: Chemical treatment – the three main technologies

1. Pyrometallurgy: A high-temperature process where the black mass is smelted. This method primarily recovers metals such as nickel, copper, and cobalt. However, it involves high energy consumption and is less efficient at recovering lithium.

2. Hydrometallurgy: Metals are dissolved in chemical solutions and then extracted. It is more selective than pyrometallurgy and allows for the recovery of a broader range of materials, including lithium.

3. Direct Recycling: Still under industrial development, this technique aims to directly regenerate functional components (e.g., cathodes) without first converting them into raw materials. It offers significant energy savings and reduced costs but requires standardization.
   
   

How much material can be recovered from electric car battery recycling?

A common question when discussing electric car battery recycling is: how much material can actually be recovered? The answer is encouraging, though it depends on the type of process used and the battery’s specific composition.

Recovery efficiency: an overview

Data from the Motus-E report and numerous academic studies highlight that, on average, it is possible to recover up to 60-70% of the materials contained in a lithium-ion battery. In some cases, thanks to the most advanced hydrometallurgical technologies, recovery rates can reach 80%.

Here are the main materials extracted during recycling:

• Nickel: A valuable material, essential for producing high-energy-density cathodes.

• Cobalt: A critical metal, with availability highly concentrated in a few geographic areas.

• Lithium: Fundamental for producing lithium-ion batteries, recoverable especially through hydrometallurgical processes.

• Copper: Used in wiring and current collectors.

• Graphite: Present in the anode, and its recovery is the focus of ongoing technological development.

Why recovering these materials is important

• Reduction of Environmental Impact: Less mining means less water consumption, less pollution, and fewer CO₂ emissions.

• Economic Savings: Using secondary raw materials lowers the production costs of new batteries.

• Supply Security: Critical materials like cobalt and nickel mainly come from geopolitically unstable countries (such as the Democratic Republic of Congo). Recycling reduces dependence on these markets.

• Support for the Circular Economy: Reintroducing materials into the production cycle is one of the pillars of the European Green Deal policies.
  
  

Now is the time to act: investing in collection infrastructure, treatment facilities, and technological innovation. An efficient electric car battery recycling system is, and will increasingly be, the key to combining industrial competitiveness with environmental responsibility, positioning Italy and Europe at the forefront in the race toward the mobility of the future.