Why does solar charging stop when a cloud passes?

This is a familiar situation for anyone using a wallbox configured to take advantage of the surplus generated by a photovoltaic system: the car is charging normally, the sky becomes cloudy for a few minutes and the charging power drops. Sometimes charging simply slows down; at other times it pauses completely, only to restart when the sun comes back out.

At first glance, this may look like abnormal wallbox behaviour. In most cases, however, it is a perfectly understandable consequence of how photovoltaics, household consumption and AC charging for electric vehicles work together. To understand the broader picture, it is useful to know how EV charging with photovoltaics works, while here we will focus specifically on interruptions caused by variations in surplus power.

The key point is that the wallbox does not react to the presence of a cloud. There is, of course, no sensor watching the sky and deciding to stop charging. The system reacts to the amount of power actually available.

When solar irradiance decreases, the panels produce less power. If the house continues to consume electricity at the same time, the photovoltaic surplus available for the car can fall even faster. The wallbox can therefore reduce the charging current, but it cannot do so indefinitely: in normal AC charging there is a minimum threshold below which the vehicle cannot simply continue drawing progressively less power.

In AC charging controlled according to IEC 61851, the minimum current normally communicated to the vehicle during charging is 6 A per phase. At around 230 V, this corresponds to just under 1.4 kW in single-phase charging; in three-phase charging, the overall figure is around 4.2 kW.

If the surplus falls below the required minimum and the configuration does not allow power to be supplemented from the grid or a battery storage system, the wallbox will normally need to temporarily pause charging and wait until sufficient power becomes available again.

This is exactly what creates the familiar “stop-and-start” behaviour on days with alternating sunshine and clouds.

Let’s look at what actually happens, why some configurations are more sensitive than others, and what to check when interruptions become too frequent.

Solar charging and clouds: what happens to photovoltaic production?

A cloud can reduce panel output within seconds

The rated power of a photovoltaic system does not correspond to the amount of power it produces at every moment of the day.

A 6 kWp system, for example, does not constantly generate 6 kW. This is its rated power under specific reference conditions.

In real-world operation, output changes continuously depending on several factors:

• solar irradiance;

• position of the sun;

• module temperature;

• orientation;

• tilt;

• shading;

• season;

• weather conditions.

Among these factors, passing clouds are particularly relevant because they can cause relatively rapid changes.

Cloud cover does not necessarily reduce production to zero. The panels still receive a component of diffuse solar radiation. What changes is the amount of solar energy reaching the modules and, consequently, the electrical power available.

A system producing 5 kW a few seconds earlier may fall to 3 kW, 2 kW or even lower depending on conditions.

For the household, this may still appear to be a significant level of production. For the wallbox, however, a different figure matters more.

The wallbox does not necessarily have access to all photovoltaic production

Imagine that the photovoltaic system is producing 5 kW, while the house is using 1.5 kW. The surplus available for charging is therefore 3.5 kW.

If a passing cloud reduces production to 2.5 kW while household consumption remains unchanged, the surplus falls to 1 kW.

The panels are still producing 2.5 kW. The system has not switched off and there is not necessarily anything wrong with it.

However, only 1 kW remains available for the car.

This difference explains why solar charging stops when a cloud passes even though the inverter app may still show what appears to be a significant level of photovoltaic production.

An overcast day may cause fewer stops than a variable day

It may sound counterintuitive, but a completely overcast day is not necessarily the worst-case scenario.

If irradiance is low but relatively stable, photovoltaic production may also follow a more consistent pattern.

The wallbox can then find itself in a relatively simple situation:

either the surplus is sufficient and charging continues at reduced power, or the surplus is insufficient and the car remains on standby.

The more difficult situation is one characterised by constant alternation: sun, cloud, sun, cloud.

The surplus can then repeatedly fluctuate around the minimum charging threshold.

For example:

• 2.2 kW;

• 1.5 kW;

• 1.2 kW;

• 1.8 kW;

• 1.1 kW;

• 2.4 kW.

If the car is charging on a single phase and must be powered exclusively by surplus energy, these values can cause the system to move repeatedly between “charging is possible” and “charging must be paused”.

A passing cloud is only one possible cause

This is worth highlighting because it is also useful when diagnosing the system.

The wallbox does not necessarily distinguish between a reduction in surplus caused by the weather and one caused by the household.

From the energy-management system’s point of view, the result is what matters.

If the photovoltaic system is producing 4 kW but a 2.5 kW household load suddenly switches on, the amount of energy left for the car may decrease in exactly the same way as when a cloud passes.

For this reason, an interruption that appears to be “weather-related” should always be interpreted by looking at the overall household energy balance.

Why can photovoltaic surplus become insufficient when a cloud passes?

Photovoltaic production and surplus are not the same thing

This is probably the most important concept behind the entire issue.

In a system configured to maximise self-consumption, knowing how many kilowatts the panels are producing is not enough.

You also need to subtract what the household is consuming at the same moment.

In simplified terms:

photovoltaic surplus = PV production – household consumption

If the result is positive, there is excess energy that can potentially be used by the wallbox.

If that figure decreases, the wallbox needs to reduce charging power.

Once it falls below the minimum threshold, charging may need to be paused.

Naturally, a real installation can be more complex. It may include battery storage, hybrid inverters, EMS systems, priority rules and measurements across different phases.

However, the basic principle remains the same.

Household consumption can also push the system below the threshold

Now let’s imagine a different situation.

The sky is perfectly clear.

Photovoltaic production: 4.5 kW

Household consumption: 1 kW

Surplus: 3.5 kW

The car is charging.

An induction hob is switched on, or a heat pump starts operating.

Household consumption temporarily rises to: 3.3 kW

Surplus: 1.2 kW

The result is almost identical to what happens when a cloud passes.

Solar production has not changed.

Yet the wallbox may still pause charging.

This shows why looking only at the photovoltaic production curve can lead to the wrong conclusion.

High-power household appliances can play an important role

Depending on the household, loads that can quickly affect the available surplus include:

• induction hob;

• oven;

• heat pump;

• air conditioning;

• electric water heater;

• tumble dryer;

• washing machine during water-heating phases.

This does not mean these appliances should not be used while the car is charging.

On the contrary, the purpose of dynamic power management is precisely to adapt the power allocated to the wallbox to the conditions in the home.

The result, however, is that the user may see the vehicle’s charging power decrease even when the sky is completely clear.

Why real-time measurement is essential

A wallbox that needs to use photovoltaic surplus must know the household’s energy balance.

Depending on the system architecture, smart meters or dedicated sensors can be used to determine how much energy is being imported from or exported to the grid.

This information allows the system to increase or decrease the current available to the car.

If the measurements are correct, reacting to variations in surplus is the desired behaviour.

If the readings are inconsistent, however, the system may react incorrectly.

This is where it becomes important to distinguish between a normal interruption caused by changing surplus and a configuration or measurement problem.

Why can’t the wallbox keep charging with very little solar power?

AC charging has a minimum current limit

A very common question is this: if the photovoltaic system still has 800 W or 1 kW of surplus available, why can’t the wallbox simply continue charging at that power?

The answer lies in how AC charging is managed.

The wallbox communicates the available current to the vehicle. The car’s onboard charger then uses the alternating current and converts it into direct current for the battery.

However, this adjustment cannot continue indefinitely towards lower and lower values.

In AC charging controlled according to IEC 61851, the current communicated to the vehicle normally cannot fall below 6 A per phase.

How much power does 6 A correspond to in single-phase charging?

With a nominal voltage of approximately 230 V:

230 V × 6 A = 1,380 W

So approximately: 1.4 kW

This is why many domestic solar-charging systems treat around 1.4 kW as an important threshold when the vehicle is charging on a single phase.

If the surplus drops to 1 kW, the system cannot simply tell the vehicle to continue at 4.3 A using the normal control method for that charging session.

When charging takes place close to the minimum threshold, the vehicle’s auxiliary consumption can also have a proportionally greater impact. Very frequent interruptions may also slightly reduce overall efficiency, although the actual effect depends on the vehicle and its charging-management system. This topic is explored in more detail in our analysis of energy losses during electric car charging.

Why is the threshold much higher in three-phase charging?

The situation becomes even more interesting with three-phase charging.

As an indication:

√3 × 400 V × 6 A ≈ 4.2 kW

This means that an actual three-phase charging session at 6 A per phase may require just over 4 kW.

This creates an important difference.

A 3 kW surplus may be more than enough to continue single-phase charging.

The same surplus may be insufficient to maintain a three-phase charging session.

Why is this particularly noticeable on variable-weather days?

Imagine photovoltaic surplus fluctuating between 3 and 5 kW.

In single-phase charging, that range can be relatively easy to use.

In three-phase charging, however, the value may repeatedly cross the minimum threshold.

For this reason, some configurations may experience more frequent stops even though, looking only at the figures, there appears to be “enough solar power”.

The assessment should not be based solely on the total power available. You also need to consider how the vehicle is actually charging.

Dynamic switching between single-phase and three-phase charging

Some systems can, where supported by the hardware, configuration and vehicle, switch between single-phase and three-phase operation.

The purpose is clear.

When the surplus is low, one phase allows charging power to fall towards around 1.4 kW.

When production increases, three phases make it possible to increase charging power significantly.

This widens the range over which photovoltaic energy can be used directly.

However, it should not be assumed that every wallbox or vehicle automatically supports this function.

Compatibility and switching behaviour need to be checked case by case. Switching generally requires a brief, controlled interruption of the charging session and must be managed according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Some vehicles may also respond poorly to excessively frequent phase changes.

A technical threshold, not a wallbox fault

This point is essential from a user-experience perspective as well.

If a wallbox configured in surplus-only mode stops at around 1.4 kW during single-phase charging, this does not necessarily mean it “cannot modulate power properly”.

It may have done exactly what it was designed to do, progressively reducing the charging current until the minimum was reached.

Below that point, there is simply no further normal AC charging level available using the same control logic.

The pause therefore becomes part of normal system operation.

Why can Solar Only mode cause stops and restarts?

What does using only surplus power actually mean?

A Solar Only mode, or any configuration designed to avoid grid contribution, starts from a very specific objective: use only excess photovoltaic energy to charge the car.

If the photovoltaic system produces enough, charging continues.

If production falls, charging power is reduced.

If there is no longer enough surplus to meet the minimum current requirement, charging is paused.

This logic is completely consistent with the aim of maximising self-consumption.

Why doesn’t the grid automatically provide what is missing?

Let’s take a very simple example.

Surplus: 1.2 kW

Indicative minimum power required: 1.4 kW

Only 200 W are missing.

Technically, it would be easy to take that power from the grid.

However, if the user has deliberately selected a mode designed to avoid grid consumption, doing so would go against the chosen strategy.

The wallbox therefore pauses charging.

Not because there is no solar energy at all, but because the system cannot satisfy both of these conditions at the same time:

• meet the car’s minimum charging threshold;

• avoid using grid electricity.

The stop is therefore often an energy-management choice

This completely changes how the phenomenon should be interpreted.

When asking why solar charging stops when a cloud passes, the answer is not simply “because there is less sunlight”.

A more accurate answer is:

because the surplus has fallen below the level required for the charging session and the system has been configured not to make up the difference using other energy sources.

The trade-off between self-consumption and continuity

Every configuration needs to find its position between two extremes.

On one side: maximum photovoltaic self-consumption

On the other: maximum charging continuity

Solar Only mode prioritises the first.

A hybrid mode gives more priority to the second.

There is no universally correct answer.

Someone who leaves the car parked from morning until late afternoon may be perfectly happy to accept several pauses, provided that by the end of the day the battery has received a significant amount of solar energy.

Another driver may only have two hours available before needing to leave again.

In that case, waiting for every cloud to pass may not be practical.

When a small amount of grid support can help

If the wallbox or EMS supports a mode that combines photovoltaic power with grid electricity, the system can use the available surplus and draw only the missing amount from the grid.

For example:

• PV surplus: 1.1 kW

• minimum power: 1.4 kW

• grid contribution: 0.3 kW

Charging continues.

When the sun returns and the PV surplus rises to 2.5 kW, the need for grid support disappears.

A strategy like this can drastically reduce charging interruptions on variable-weather days.

However, it does not maximise the share of purely solar energy at every individual moment in the same way.

The configuration should reflect how the car is actually used

This is a much more useful criterion than trying to identify one universally “best” mode.

If the vehicle remains connected for many hours and does not need to reach a specific state of charge quickly, Solar Only mode can be perfectly reasonable.

If the car needs to be ready by a precise time, a small amount of grid integration may represent a better compromise.

The objective should not be to prevent every pause at all costs.

It should be to use the system in a way that matches the user’s priorities.

Stop-and-start photovoltaic charging: why does it happen?

When the surplus fluctuates around the minimum threshold

Classic stop-and-start behaviour occurs when the available production repeatedly changes around the threshold separating a viable charging condition from an insufficient one.

Consider single-phase charging.

12:00:

surplus 1.8 kW

Charging continues.

12:02:

surplus 1.3 kW

Charging must be paused.

12:04:

surplus 1.6 kW

Charging could restart.

12:06:

surplus 1.2 kW

Another stop.

If the system reacted instantly to every change, a day with fast-moving clouds could lead to a large number of starts and stops.

Why thresholds and delay times matter

To avoid this behaviour, many energy-management systems use forms of stabilisation.

One of the most intuitive approaches is to introduce a delay.

If the surplus falls below the minimum for only a few seconds, the system does not necessarily treat the event as permanent.

Similarly, when surplus rises above the threshold again, it may wait before restarting the car.

The aim is to avoid chasing every single fluctuation in photovoltaic output.

What is hysteresis in solar charging?

In simple terms, hysteresis means not using exactly the same threshold for continuously switching between two different states.

For example, a system may pause charging under a certain condition but require slightly higher or more stable surplus before restarting.

This prevents the system from constantly oscillating around a single value.

It is a widely used control technique because it improves system stability.

A short cloud event should not necessarily trigger an immediate stop

If cloud cover lasts only a few seconds, it may be preferable for the system to wait.

If the power deficit persists, however, the pause becomes necessary.

The exact timing and behaviour depend on the logic implemented by the manufacturer and on the available settings.

There is therefore no universal number of seconds after which every wallbox must stop.

Do frequent interruptions always indicate a problem?

No. If photovoltaic production is extremely variable and the configuration is strictly surplus-only, a certain number of stops may be normal.

However, it is important to distinguish between:

• consistent behaviour;

• abnormal behaviour.

If charging power rises and falls together with the available surplus, the system is probably simply following the energy available.

If the wallbox continues to stop even when several kilowatts of stable surplus are available, other factors should be investigated.

How to prevent solar charging from stopping continuously

1. Check whether Solar Only mode is actually active

The first step is to check the wallbox settings in the Daze app, including the charging mode, single-phase or three-phase configuration, and power-management settings.

It may sound obvious, but many misunderstandings arise because the user does not know whether the wallbox is currently using:

• surplus only;

• surplus with additional energy input;

• fixed power;

• a specific schedule.

If the selected mode requires exclusively excess photovoltaic energy, stopping below the threshold is consistent with the configuration.

If the system should allow grid integration, however, the behaviour should be checked.

2. Check how much surplus is actually available

When charging stops, look at the following values at the same time:

• PV production;

• household consumption;

• energy imported from or exported to the grid;

• wallbox charging power.

This is far more useful than looking only at the inverter reading.

A photovoltaic system producing 3 kW may appear to be generating a healthy amount of power.

But if the house is consuming 2 kW, only 1 kW of surplus remains.

3. Check whether the interruption coincides with other household loads

A cloud and an induction hob can produce the same result from the wallbox’s point of view.

If interruptions repeatedly occur at particular times, it can be useful to check which appliances are operating.

For example, a heat pump may have automatic operating cycles.

A storage system may change its behaviour.

An electric water heater may activate according to a schedule.

The explanation may therefore be unrelated to the weather.

4. Consider a hybrid mode when continuity matters

If the main concern is keeping the car charging continuously, allowing the grid to temporarily supply the missing amount can be one of the most effective solutions.

This does not mean giving up on photovoltaic charging.

The system can continue to use all available solar production and use the grid only for the shortfall.

This approach is particularly useful during:

• highly variable weather;

• short charging sessions;

• charging sessions with a specific deadline.

5. Avoid excessive sensitivity to short-term fluctuations

When a product allows thresholds or delays to be configured, overly aggressive settings may not be ideal.

The aim is not necessarily to react to every individual watt.

It is to maintain sensible and stable energy-management behaviour.

Any changes should always follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

6. Consider the single-phase or three-phase configuration

If the system often has only 2–3 kW of surplus available, an actual three-phase charging session is more likely to reach its minimum operating threshold.

However, the phase configuration needs to be assessed correctly by the installer and in relation to the specific vehicle.

It is not a setting that should be changed casually just to avoid a few charging pauses.

7. Schedule charging when surplus is more stable

If the car cannot remain connected throughout the entire day, concentrating charging in the hours when the photovoltaic system usually produces more energy can increase the likelihood of having a stable surplus. If the vehicle can remain connected for longer, a properly configured Solar Only mode can instead wait automatically until sufficient surplus becomes available.

Naturally, this depends on:

• roof orientation;

• season;

• household habits;

• production profile.

There is no single charging time that works for everyone.

Anyone still designing the system can also learn more about how to choose a wallbox for use with solar panels, including power modulation and energy-flow measurement.

The aim is not to eliminate every single pause

One point that is often overlooked is that uninterrupted charging does not necessarily correspond to the best overall energy performance.

If the car remains connected for seven hours and receives 15 kWh almost entirely from photovoltaic surplus, a few interruptions may have very little effect on the final result.

It is therefore more useful to ask: how much solar energy was transferred to the car during the day? rather than: how many times did charging stop?

Can a battery storage system prevent charging stops when a cloud passes?

A home battery can help stabilise charging, but it does not automatically eliminate the problem.

The principle is simple.

When the photovoltaic system produces more energy than is required, the battery can be charged.

When a cloud temporarily reduces production, the battery can provide some of the missing energy.

This means the overall power available to the home and the vehicle can remain more stable, even when the instantaneous photovoltaic surplus decreases.

It depends on the configured strategy

Having a storage system does not mean the battery will always be used to charge the car.

The system may be configured to maintain a minimum photovoltaic battery reserve, preventing all stored energy from being used simply to keep the car charging.

It may also:

• preserve energy for the evening;

• prioritise household consumption;

• avoid using storage for EV charging altogether.

The behaviour also depends on the architecture of the installation and the position of the measurement devices. In some configurations, the battery system may interpret the wallbox as a normal household load and automatically discharge to supply it. To prevent this, the priorities between the home, battery and vehicle need to be configured correctly.

The key point here is simple: if the battery is allowed to intervene, it can temporarily compensate for the deficit caused by a cloud and reduce the probability of a charging stop.

It is not always the most energy-efficient choice

Discharging a home battery into the car means transferring energy that might otherwise be useful later for powering the household.

In addition, charging, storing and discharging energy involve losses.

The decision should therefore depend on the overall energy strategy, not simply on the desire to eliminate every wallbox pause.

How can an Energy Management System help when production drops?

An EMS also needs to be understood in relation to this specific issue.

An Energy Management System cannot create additional energy when a cloud passes.

Instead, its role is to manage the available energy more effectively.

Depending on the ecosystem, it may take into account:

• photovoltaic production;

• household consumption;

• grid import and export;

• battery state of charge;

• wallbox charging power.

When the surplus decreases, a compatible EMS can coordinate the system’s response according to the connected devices and the configured strategy.

For example, it may:

• reduce the wallbox current;

• use battery storage, if allowed;

• supplement power from the grid according to the selected strategy;

• pause the session if none of these alternatives is permitted.

In the context of a passing cloud, the main role of the EMS is therefore to orchestrate the energy response.

To learn more about how solar generation, storage and EV charging can be coordinated, see how integrated management of photovoltaics, battery storage and EMS works.

Solar charging interrupted: normal behaviour or a wallbox problem?

At this point, the most useful question is how to determine whether a charging stop is consistent with the configured strategy or whether it could indicate a fault.

When the interruption is probably normal

The behaviour is consistent with normal surplus management if:

• charging power decreases when photovoltaic production falls;

• the house is consuming a significant share of the available energy;

• charging approaches its minimum threshold;

• the session pauses when little surplus is available;

• charging restarts when sufficient power becomes available again;

• no errors are displayed.

In this case, the wallbox is simply following the household’s energy balance.

When further investigation may be necessary

The system should be checked more carefully when:

• photovoltaic production is high but charging does not restart;

• surplus is stable but the charging session still stops repeatedly;

• the values displayed in the app are inconsistent with those shown by the inverter or meter;

• error messages appear;

• the meter loses communication;

• the system appears to identify grid import and export in reverse;

• the wallbox reboots instead of simply pausing the charging session.

Check energy-flow measurement

Surplus management depends on the quality of the information available.

If a sensor is installed in the wrong direction or the phases are not interpreted correctly, the system may think surplus energy is available when the home is actually importing power, or vice versa.

Depending on the architecture of the system, checks may involve:

• smart meters;

• current sensors;

• phase configuration;

• position of the measurement point;

• communication between devices.

Do not modify the electrical installation yourself

Checking data and software settings available to the user is one thing.

Working on sensors, the electrical distribution board, protective devices or phase configuration is another.

If readings appear incorrect or electrical faults occur, the installer or technical support should be contacted.

A simple method for understanding what is happening

When charging stops, record the following values at the same time:

1. photovoltaic production;

2. household consumption;

3. surplus or grid exchange;

4. wallbox charging power;

5. selected charging mode;

6. battery state of charge, if applicable;

7. any error messages.

This allows the system’s behaviour to be reconstructed quickly.

For example:

PV: 2.2 kW
House: 1.2 kW
Surplus: 1 kW
Mode: Solar Only

A pause during single-phase charging is entirely plausible.

Now consider a different case:

PV: 6.5 kW
House: 1.2 kW
Surplus: 5.3 kW
Car not charging, with no apparent errors.

In this case, a passing cloud is no longer a sufficient explanation.

Frequently asked questions about solar charging and wallbox interruptions

Is it normal for solar charging to stop when a cloud passes?

Yes, especially in Solar Only mode. If production falls enough to reduce the surplus below the minimum power needed for the AC charging session, the wallbox may temporarily pause charging.

Why does solar charging stop when a cloud passes even though the panels are still producing?

Because surplus is what matters, not total production. If the panels are generating 2.5 kW but the house is using 1.5 kW, only 1 kW remains available for the car.

What is the minimum power required to charge an electric car on a single phase?

As a reference, a minimum current of 6 A at approximately 230 V corresponds to around 1.4 kW.

What is the indicative minimum for three-phase charging?

At 6 A per phase and approximately 400 V three-phase, the overall figure is around 4.2 kW.

Why can’t the wallbox charge at 500 W?

Because in normal AC charging, the current communicated to the vehicle cannot be reduced indefinitely to arbitrarily low values. The practical minimum threshold of 6 A prevents charging from being reduced to only a few hundred watts.

Is a very cloudy day always worse?

Not necessarily. Low but stable production may cause fewer stops than a day with constant alternation between strong sunshine and clouds.

Can switching on the oven interrupt charging?

Yes, if charging uses surplus energy only. The oven increases household consumption and reduces the energy available for the vehicle.

Can the grid prevent charging from stopping?

Yes, if the selected mode allows photovoltaic surplus to be supplemented with electricity from the grid.

Can a battery storage system prevent interruptions?

It can reduce them by temporarily providing the missing power, but only if the system strategy allows the battery to be used for charging the car. The actual behaviour depends on how priorities are configured between household consumption, battery storage and EV charging.

Why does charging restart only a few minutes after the sun comes back?

The system may use waiting times or other stabilisation logic to avoid repeated stops and restarts during very short fluctuations.

Do frequent stops mean the wallbox is faulty?

No. If they clearly follow reductions and increases in photovoltaic surplus, they may be completely normal. If they also occur when production is high and stable, however, it is worth checking the system configuration and energy measurements.

Can interruptions damage the electric car?

Normal pauses controlled through communication between the wallbox and the vehicle generally do not damage the battery. However, they should not be confused with abnormal power interruptions, protective-device trips or repeated wallbox reboots, which require a technical check.

Is Solar Only or hybrid mode better?

It depends on the objective. Solar Only prioritises maximum self-consumption and may involve more pauses. A hybrid mode prioritises continuity by using grid electricity only when photovoltaic power is insufficient.

Why does solar charging stop when a cloud passes? What to remember

When a cloud reduces photovoltaic production, the surplus remaining after household consumption may fall below the minimum power required by the vehicle. If the configuration does not allow energy to be supplemented from the grid or battery storage, the wallbox pauses charging until sufficient surplus becomes available again.

This is not necessarily a fault. It is often simply the consequence of the selected charging mode. If interruptions occur too frequently, the energy flows can be checked, the configuration can be adjusted, or a limited contribution from other energy sources can be allowed.

The aim is to find the right balance between using photovoltaic surplus and maintaining charging continuity.